Fratura do Olecrano Folheto

This is the clinical evidence summary written for health professionals. It is technical, and it lists the research this page was built from. You do not need to read it to understand your treatment or to make a decision about it.

Overview

• Close radiographic follow-up is recommended for nonsurgically treated minimally displaced olecranon fractures in children to monitor for further displacement [1].
• Nonoperative management of isolated displaced olecranon fractures yields satisfactory short-term and long-term outcomes in older, lower-demand patients [7].
• A majority of olecranon fractures heal uneventfully with good or excellent results, with a small loss of motion to be expected [4].
• Operative treatment of closed displaced olecranon fractures via open reduction and internal fixation results in excellent or good outcomes in 96% of individuals up to 25 years after the fracture [2].
• Low-profile double-plate osteosynthesis is a safe and effective alternative treatment for olecranon fractures, providing excellent subjective and objective clinical outcome measures [5].
• Both Kirschner wire tension band combined with anatomical locking plate and other operative procedures effectively treat Mayo type II olecranon fractures [8].
• Plating of the olecranon leads to predictable union, although lack of full extension is the most common complication, occurring in 39% of patients [17].
• Tension-band wiring (TBW) remains an effective treatment for appropriately selected olecranon fractures and outperformed plate osteosynthesis in the evaluated cohort [22].
• Excision of the olecranon fragment with repair of the triceps mechanism is supported as the preferred treatment method due to significantly less morbidity compared with internal fixation [25].
• The timing of fixation for displaced olecranon fractures does not significantly increase the rate of early complications or reoperations [13].
• Surgical treatment of olecranon fractures is associated with a high rate of complications, and patients undergoing revisions beyond implant removal had poorer functional outcomes [39].
• No significant differences in functional outcomes or secondary operations were found with respect to fracture type, gender, or surgical method in the context of olecranon fracture complications [39].
• Olecranon osteotomy represents a useful alternative for the treatment of fractures and nonunions of the distal humerus [41].

Anatomy & Pathophysiology

• Fixation of olecranon fractures must be secure enough to permit early motion to avoid significant stiffness of the elbow joint [10].
• In pediatric olecranon fractures, treatment with a sling resulted in all cases being free of symptoms and having a full range of elbow movement at 3 weeks [11].
• Increasing elbow flexion places the medial elbow in a position to carry a greater amount of load, which may be exacerbated during the final moments of the pitching motion [27].
• Individuals with elbow degenerative changes had no inferior subjective elbow function compared to those with normal radiographs, except for those with joint space reduction [29].
• Primary elbow instability and fracture morphology are prognostic factors for elbow function and development of arthrosis after operative treatment of olecranon fractures [35].
• The outcome of tension-band wiring may be compromised in the presence of elbow instability and associated fractures of the radial head and coronoid [38].
• A pathoanatomic approach using the CURL framework systematically evaluates key injury components (coronoid, ulna, radial head, and ligaments) to guide surgical planning for proximal ulna fracture dislocation [43].
• Accurate diagnosis of complex elbow fracture-dislocations, such as posterior Monteggia fractures and posterior fracture-dislocation of the proximal ulna, helps provide effective treatments and evaluate prognosis [44].
• The guiding principle in surgical techniques for olecranon fractures is to restore a congruent humeroulnar joint and allow restoration of upper extremity function [47].
• Technological advances and improved understanding of functional anatomy have led to an evolution in operative reconstruction of complex proximal ulnar and coronoid fractures [48].
• The proposed novel fragment-specific classification of complex olecranon fractures is anatomically based and considers the deforming forces from ligaments and tendons [49].
• The Subjective Elbow Value (SEV) shows a high correlation to the most commonly used scoring systems for outcome evaluation after elbow injury [51].
• A stable, functional elbow can be restored in most patients with proximal ulna fractures treated with open reduction and internal fixation [52].
• Targeting the proximal ulna's narrowest segment provides an effective approach for osteotomy when precise morphology is unknown [53].
• Radiographic measurements of normal elbows guide the surgeon to obtain a more reliable length of the olecranon and maintain articular geometry during fixation [54].

Classification

• The Mayo classification was designed to simplify categorization of olecranon fractures but does not achieve this goal due to poor reproducibility [26].
• Quantitative 3-dimensional computed tomography analysis further clarified the fracture morphology of Mayo type I, II, and III fractures [36].
• Fracture of the olecranon in a child is often only part of a complex injury to the bone and soft tissues around the elbow [19].
• The olecranon apophyseal ossification system, when combined with age and sex, successfully predicts peak height velocity within a year in 90% of cases, establishing a single lateral view of the olecranon as a simple alternative to more complex grading systems [40].

Clinical Presentation

• Olecranon fractures in children can displace further after initial nonsurgical treatment, necessitating close radiographic follow-up [1].
• Isolated displaced olecranon fractures (>2 mm) in elderly patients can be successfully treated nonoperatively [3].
• The incidence of olecranon fractures increased by 29% over a 20-year study period (1999–2018) in Denmark [6].
• Nonoperative management of isolated displaced olecranon fractures in older, lower-demand patients yields satisfactory short-term and long-term outcomes [7].
• Patients with olecranon fractures have essentially similar demographic characteristics compared to patients with distal radius fractures [9].
• All 10 pediatric cases treated with a sling were free of symptoms and had a full range of elbow movement at 3 weeks [11].
• Olecranon fractures in the elderly have higher than expected 1-year mortality rates [14].
• Isolated fractures of the olecranon occur after low-energy trauma, especially in older women (>65 years) [15].
• Fractures of the olecranon in children are often part of a complex injury to the bone and soft tissues around the elbow [19].
• Articular impaction is a common feature of geriatric olecranon fractures [20].
• The median incidence of post-traumatic osteoarthritis following isolated olecranon fractures is 19% at a median follow-up of 41 months [21].

Investigations

• Close radiographic follow-up is recommended for nonsurgically treated olecranon fractures [1].
• Some isolated displaced (>2 mm) olecranon fractures in elderly patients can be successfully treated nonoperatively [3].
• Olecranon stress fracture is an overuse injury primarily affecting throwing athletes, with MRI serving as the gold standard for detection [50].

Treatment

Nonoperative Management

• The literature on the treatment of olecranon fractures in elderly patients is limited [18].
• Nonoperative treatment is a reasonable option for displaced stable olecranon fractures in elderly patients [31].
• Displaced olecranon fractures in patients older than 70 years may be effectively managed with nonoperative measures to produce high satisfaction and functional range of motion [34].
• Aggregate data support the non-operative treatment of isolated undisplaced olecranon fractures with good results in pediatric patients [33].

Operative Management

• A majority of olecranon fractures heal uneventfully with good/excellent results with a small loss of motion to be expected [4].
• 96% of individuals with a closed displaced fracture of the olecranon treated by open reduction and internal fixation had excellent or good outcomes up to 25 years after the fracture [2].
• Fixation must be secure enough to permit early motion to avoid significant stiffness of the elbow joint [10].
• No one technique is suitable for the management of all olecranon fractures [16].
• Aggregate data support the operative treatment of pediatric olecranon fractures displaced ≥4 mm [33].
• Low-profile double-plate osteosynthesis is a safe and effective alternative treatment of olecranon fractures with excellent subjective and objective clinical outcome measures [5].
• Low-profile double-plate osteosynthesis for treating olecranon fractures resulted in good clinical outcomes [37].
• Tension band wiring (TBW) remains an effective treatment for appropriately selected olecranon fractures and outperformed plate osteosynthesis in the studied cohort [22].
• Internal fixation by cable pin system (CPS) is an effective method for olecranon fracture and is associated with a shorter healing time, fewer complications and better function than TBW [23].
• Plate has better efficacy and safety for Mayo II olecranon fractures [28].
• The nickel-titanium olecranon memory connector (OMC) could be an effective alternative to treat olecranon fractures [30].
• Excision of the fragment of the olecranon with repair of the triceps mechanism is supported as the preferred method of treatment of fractures of the olecranon due to significantly less morbidity compared with internal fixation [25].

Complications

• Close radiographic follow-up is recommended for nonsurgically treated olecranon fractures to monitor for further displacement [1].
• Minimally displaced olecranon fractures in children can undergo further displacement after initial nonsurgical treatment [1].
• A majority of olecranon fractures heal uneventfully with good or excellent results, though a small loss of motion is expected [4].
• Olecranon fractures in children treated with a sling result in full range of elbow movement and freedom from symptoms at 3 weeks [11].
• The most common complication after plating of olecranon fractures is lack of full extension, occurring in 39% of patients [17].
• Plating of the olecranon leads to predictable union [17].
• The incidence of post-traumatic osteoarthritis following isolated olecranon fractures has a median rate of 19% at a median follow-up of 41 months [21].
• Instability and comminution play a role in the development of post-traumatic osteoarthritis in olecranon fractures [21].
• Olecranon fractures in the elderly are associated with higher than expected 1-year mortality rates [14].
• Patients aged 50 years or more with an olecranon fracture should be evaluated for osteoporosis and fracture risks for secondary prevention [46].

Recovery

• All 10 cases of pediatric olecranon fractures treated with a sling were free of symptoms and had a full range of elbow movement at 3 weeks [11].
• Internal fixation by cable pin system (CPS) is an effective method for olecranon fracture and is associated with a shorter healing time, fewer complications, and better function than tension band wiring (TBW) [23].
• The timing of fixation of displaced olecranon fractures does not significantly increase the rate of early complications or reoperation [13].

Key Evidence

• [L4] Close radiographic follow-up for nonsurgically treated olecranon fractures is recommended. [1] (10.5435/jaaos-d-25-00821)
• [L3] 96% of individuals with a closed displaced fracture of the olecranon treated by open reduction and internal fixation had excellent or good outcomes up to 25 years after the fracture. [2] (10.1067/mse.2002.124548)
• [L4] Some isolated displaced (>2 mm) olecranon fractures in elderly patients can be successfully treated nonoperatively. [3] (10.1016/j.ocl.2016.08.011)
• [L4] A majority of olecranon fractures heal uneventfully with good/excellent results with a small loss of motion to be expected. [4] (10.1016/j.hcl.2015.07.003)
• [L3] Low-profile double-plate osteosynthesis is a safe and effective alternative treatment of olecranon fractures with excellent subjective and objective clinical outcome measures. [5] (10.1016/j.otsr.2019.08.019)
• [L3] The incidence of olecranon fractures increased by 29% over the 20-year study period. [6] (10.1186/s13018-025-05970-2)
• [L4] We found satisfactory short-term and long-term outcomes following the nonoperative management of isolated displaced olecranon fractures in older, lower-demand patients. [7] (10.2106/jbjs.l.01137)
• [L3] Both operative procedures effectively treat Mayo type II olecranon fractures. [8] (10.1186/s12891-025-08843-1)
• [L3] Patients with olecranon fractures have essentially similar demographic characteristics compared to patients with distal radius fractures. [9] (10.1177/17585732221124301)
• [L5] Fixation must be secure enough to permit early motion to avoid significant stiffness of the elbow joint. [10] (10.5435/00124635-200007000-00007)
• [L4] All 10 cases treated with a sling were free of symptoms and had a full range of elbow movement at 3 weeks. [11] (10.1016/0020-1383(75)90056-x)
• [L3] The timing of fixation of displaced olecranon fractures does not significantly increase the rate of early complications or reoperation. [13] (10.1016/j.jhsg.2023.09.002)
• [L3] Olecranon fractures in the elderly have higher than expected 1 year mortality rates. [14] (10.1177/1758573221994860)
• [L4] Isolated fractures of the olecranon occur after a low-energy trauma, especially in older women (> 65 years). [15] (10.1007/s00068-021-01765-2)
• [Paper] No one technique is suitable for the management of all olecranon fractures. [16] (10.1016/j.injury.2008.12.013)
• [L3] Plating of the olecranon leads to predictable union, though the most common complication was lack of full extension in 39% of patients. [17] (10.1016/j.injury.2016.04.015)
• [L4] The literature on the treatment of olecranon fractures in elderly patients is limited. [18] (10.1007/s11678-018-0488-7)
• [L4] Fracture of the olecranon in a child is often only part of a complex injury to the bone and soft tissues around the elbow. [19] (10.1016/0020-1383(80)90009-1)
• [L4] Articular impaction is a common feature of geriatric olecranon fractures. [20] (10.5435/jaaos-d-20-01293)
• [L4] This review identified a median OA incidence of 19% at a median follow-up of 41 months following isolated olecranon fractures. [21] (10.1016/j.jse.2026.02.024)
• [L4] TBW remains an effective treatment for appropriately selected olecranon fractures and in this cohort outperformed plate osteosynthesis. [22] (10.1007/s00590-015-1724-0)
• [L1] Internal fixation by CPS is an effective method for olecranon fracture and is associated with a shorter healing time, fewer complications and better function than TBW. [23] (10.1177/147323001204000324)
• [L3] The study supports the rationale for excision of the fragment of the olecranon with repair of the triceps mechanism as the preferred method of treatment of fractures of the olecranon due to significantly less morbidity compared with internal fixation. [25] (10.2106/00004623-198163050-00005)
• [L5] The Mayo classification was designed to simplify categorization of olecranon fractures but does not achieve this goal due to poor reproducibility. [26] (10.1097/corr.0000000000000614)
• [L4] Increasing elbow flexion has been shown to place the medial elbow in a position to carry a greater amount of load, which may be exacerbated during the final moments of the pitching motion. [27] (10.1177/03635465211072223)
• [L1] Plate has better efficacy and safety for Mayo II olecranon fractures. [28] (10.1186/s13018-022-03262-7)
• [L3] Individuals with elbow degenerative changes had no inferior subjective elbow function compared to those with normal radiographs, except for those with joint space reduction. [29] (10.1007/s00402-020-03453-z)
• [L2] The study showed that OMC could be an effective alternative to treat olecranon fractures. [30] (10.1007/s00264-013-1878-5)
• [L1] This supports nonoperative treatment as a reasonable option for displaced stable olecranon fractures in elderly patients. [31] (10.2106/jbjs.24.00655)
• [L4] Aggregate data support the non-operative treatment of isolated undisplaced olecranon fractures with good results, and support the operative treatment of fractures displaced ≥4 mm. [33] (10.1302/2058-5241.5.190082)
• [L4] Displaced olecranon fractures in patients older than 70 years may be effectively managed with nonoperative measures to produce high satisfaction and functional range of motion. [34] (10.1177/1558944720944261)
• [L3] Primary elbow instability and fracture morphology are prognostic factors for elbow function and development of arthrosis after operative treatment of olecranon fractures. [35] (10.1016/j.injury.2003.12.002)
• [L4] Quantitative analysis of olecranon fractures further clarified fracture morphology of Mayo type I, II, and III fractures. [36] (10.1016/j.jse.2015.10.002)
• [L3] Low-profile double-plate osteosynthesis for treating olecranon fractures resulted in good clinical outcomes. [37] (10.1016/j.jse.2020.01.091)
• [L4] However, the outcome may be compromised in the presence of elbow instability and associated fractures of the radial head and coronoid. [38] (10.1016/j.jse.2005.08.002)
• [L4] Surgical treatment of olecranon fractures is associated with a high rate of complications, and patients undergoing revisions beyond implant removal had poorer functional outcomes; however, no significant differences in functional outcomes or secondary operations were found with respect to fracture type, gender, or surgical method. [39] (10.1016/j.xrrt.2025.08.004)
• [L3] When combined with age and sex, the olecranon system successfully predicts PHV within a year in 90% of cases, establishing a single lateral view of the olecranon as a simple alternative to more complex grading systems. [40] (10.2106/jbjs.20.01856)
• [L4] Olecranon osteotomy represents a useful alternative in the treatment of fractures and nonunions of the distal humerus. [41] (10.1097/00005131-200408000-00010)
• [L5] The authors propose a pathoanatomic approach using the CURL framework to systematically evaluate key injury components (coronoid, ulna, radial head, and ligaments) to guide surgical planning and improve outcomes. [43] (10.1177/17585732251348668)
• [L4] Accurate diagnoses of these complex elbow fracture-dislocation help doctors to provide effective treatments and evaluate prognosis. [44] (10.1111/os.12784)
• [L4] Our results suggest that patients aged 50 years or more with olecranon fracture should be evaluated for osteoporosis and fracture risks for secondary prevention of subsequent fractures. [46] (10.11005/jbm.2017.24.3.175)
• [L5] The guiding principle is to restore a congruent humeroulnar joint and allow restoration of upper extremity function. [47] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2014.05.014)
• [Paper] Technological advances and improved understanding of functional anatomy have led to an evolution in operative reconstruction of complex proximal ulnar and coronoid fractures. [48] (10.1016/j.injury.2016.07.060)
• [L4] This proposed classification system is anatomically based and considers the deforming forces from ligaments and tendons. [49] (10.1016/j.jse.2023.12.021)
• [L5] Olecranon stress fracture is an overuse injury primarily affecting throwing athletes, with MRI serving as the gold standard for detection. [50] (10.1016/j.csm.2020.02.005)
• [L4] The SEV shows a high correlation to the most commonly used scoring systems for outcome evaluation after elbow injury. [51] (10.1055/a-0946-2649)
• [L3] A stable, functional elbow can be restored in most patients with proximal ulna fractures treated with open reduction and internal fixation. [52] (10.1007/s00590-015-1628-z)
• [L5] Targeting the proximal ulna's narrowest segment provides an effective approach for osteotomy when precise morphology is unknown. [53] (10.1016/j.jse.2024.12.012)
• [L4] The authors conclude that these measurements guide the surgeon to obtain a more reliable length of the olecranon and maintain articular geometry during fixation. [54] (10.1002/ca.20431)

References

[1] Further Displacement After Initial Nonsurgical Treatment of Minimally Displaced Olecranon Fractures in Children. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 2026. DOI: 10.5435/jaaos-d-25-00821

[2] Comparison of tension-band and figure-of-eight wiring techniques for treatment of olecranon fractures. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2002. DOI: 10.1067/mse.2002.124548

[3] Controversies in Fractures of the Proximal Ulna. Orthopedic Clinics of North America. 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.ocl.2016.08.011

[4] Olecranon Fractures. Hand Clinics. 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.hcl.2015.07.003

[5] Clinical evaluation of double-plate osteosynthesis for olecranon fractures: A retrospective case-control study. Orthopaedics & Traumatology: Surgery & Research. 2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.otsr.2019.08.019

[6] Epidemiology and Treatment of Olecranon Fractures: a nationwide register-based analysis of 27,880 cases in Denmark from 1999 to 2018. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research. 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s13018-025-05970-2

[7] Nonoperative Management of Displaced Olecranon Fractures in Low-Demand Elderly Patients. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. 2014. DOI: 10.2106/jbjs.l.01137

[8] Efficacy evaluation of Kirschner wire tension band combined with anatomical locking plate in the treatment of Mayo type II olecranon fractures. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s12891-025-08843-1

[9] Mortality and subsequent fractures of patients with olecranon fractures compared to other upper extremity osteoporotic fractures. Shoulder & Elbow. 2022. DOI: 10.1177/17585732221124301

[10] Olecranon Fractures: Treatment Options. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 2000. DOI: 10.5435/00124635-200007000-00007

[11] Olecranon fractures in children. Injury. 1975. DOI: 10.1016/0020-1383(75)90056-x

[13] Timing of Olecranon Fracture Fixation Does Not Affect Early Complication or Reoperation Rates. Journal of Hand Surgery Global Online. 2024. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsg.2023.09.002

[14] Complications and mortality associated with olecranon fractures in the elderly: a retrospective cohort comparison from a large level one trauma centre. Shoulder & Elbow. 2021. DOI: 10.1177/1758573221994860

[15] Epidemiology, classification and treatment of olecranon fractures in adults: an observational study on 2462 fractures from the Swedish Fracture Register. European Journal of Trauma and Emergency Surgery. 2021. DOI: 10.1007/s00068-021-01765-2

[16] Olecranon fractures. Injury. 2009. DOI: 10.1016/j.injury.2008.12.013

[17] Outcomes after plating of olecranon fractures: A multicenter evaluation. Injury. 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.injury.2016.04.015

[18] Nonoperative treatment of olecranon fractures in the elderly—a systematic review. Obere Extremität. 2018. DOI: 10.1007/s11678-018-0488-7

[19] Fractures of the olecranon in children. Injury. 1980. DOI: 10.1016/0020-1383(80)90009-1

[20] Incidence and Management of Articular Impaction in Geriatric Olecranon Fractures. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 2021. DOI: 10.5435/jaaos-d-20-01293

[21] Incidence of Post-traumatic Osteoarthritis in Olecranon Fractures and the Role of Instability and Comminution in its Development: A Systematic Review. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2026. DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2026.02.024

[22] Outcome after olecranon fracture repair: Does construct type matter?. European Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery & Traumatology. 2015. DOI: 10.1007/s00590-015-1724-0

[23] Randomized Prospective Study of Olecranon Fracture Fixation: Cable Pin System versus Tension Band Wiring. Journal of International Medical Research. 2040. DOI: 10.1177/147323001204000324

[25] Operative treatment of olecranon fractures. Excision or open reduction with internal fixation.. The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. 1981. DOI: 10.2106/00004623-198163050-00005

[26] Classifications in Brief: Mayo Classification of Olecranon Fractures. Clinical Orthopaedics & Related Research. 2018. DOI: 10.1097/corr.0000000000000614

[27] Increased Elbow and Olecranon Injury History in Professional Pitchers With Increased Elbow Flexion at Ball Release. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2022. DOI: 10.1177/03635465211072223

[28] Efficacy and safety of tension band wire versus plate for Mayo II olecranon fractures: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research. 2022. DOI: 10.1186/s13018-022-03262-7

[29] Long-term outcomes after different types of Horne and Tanzer olecranon fractures. Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery. 2020. DOI: 10.1007/s00402-020-03453-z

[30] Design and application of Nickel-Titanium olecranon memory connector in treatment of olecranon fractures: a prospective randomized controlled trial. International Orthopaedics. 2013. DOI: 10.1007/s00264-013-1878-5

[31] Surgery for Olecranon Fractures in the Elderly (SOFIE). Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. 2025. DOI: 10.2106/jbjs.24.00655

[33] Paediatric olecranon fractures: a systematic review. EFORT Open Reviews. 2020. DOI: 10.1302/2058-5241.5.190082

[34] Nonoperative Management of Olecranon Fractures in Elderly Patients: A Systematic Review. HAND. 2020. DOI: 10.1177/1558944720944261

[35] Olecranon fractures in adults: factors influencing outcome. Injury. 2004. DOI: 10.1016/j.injury.2003.12.002

[36] Quantitative 3-dimensional computed tomography analysis of olecranon fractures. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2015.10.002

[37] Can low-profile double-plate osteosynthesis for olecranon fractures reduce implant removal? A retrospective multicenter study. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2020.01.091

[38] Tension-band wiring for olecranon fractures: Analysis of risk factors for failure. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2006. DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2005.08.002

[39] Risk factors for complications and poor function after open reduction and fixation of olecranon fractures. JSES Reviews, Reports, and Techniques. 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.xrrt.2025.08.004

[40] The Relationship of Olecranon Apophyseal Ossification and Sanders Hand Scores with the Timing of Peak Height Velocity in Adolescents. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. 2021. DOI: 10.2106/jbjs.20.01856

[41] Olecranon Osteotomy for Exposure of Fractures and Nonunions of the Distal Humerus. Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma. 2004. DOI: 10.1097/00005131-200408000-00010

[43] Proximal ulna fracture dislocation: Review of current concepts and surgical management. Shoulder & Elbow. 2025. DOI: 10.1177/17585732251348668

[44] Difference Between Posterior Monteggia Fractures and Posterior Fracture‐Dislocation of Proximal Ulna in Adults. Orthopaedic Surgery. 2020. DOI: 10.1111/os.12784

[46] Olecranon Fractures Have Features of Osteoporotic Fracture. Journal of Bone Metabolism. 2017. DOI: 10.11005/jbm.2017.24.3.175

[47] Surgical Techniques of Olecranon Fractures. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2014. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2014.05.014

[48] Complex coronoid and proximal ulna fractures are we getting better at fixing these?. Injury. 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.injury.2016.07.060

[49] A novel fragment specific classification of complex olecranon fractures: 3-dimensional model design, radiological validation, and proposed surgical algorithm. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2024. DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2023.12.021

[50] Olecranon Stress Fracture. Clinics in Sports Medicine. 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.csm.2020.02.005

[51] Comparison of the Subjective Elbow Value with the DASH, MEPS und Morrey Score after Olecranon Fractures. Zeitschrift für Orthopädie und Unfallchirurgie. 2019. DOI: 10.1055/a-0946-2649

[52] Complex proximal ulna fractures: outcomes of surgical treatment. European Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery & Traumatology. 2015. DOI: 10.1007/s00590-015-1628-z

[53] Morphological map of the proximal ulna bare area: a computer-assisted anatomical study in relation to olecranon osteotomy. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2024.12.012

[54] Radiographic measurements of normal elbows: Clinical relevance to olecranon fractures. Clinical Anatomy. 2006. DOI: 10.1002/ca.20431