Radial Tunnel Syndrome Info In-depth Evidence
Reviewed by Dr Kieran Hirpara, Specialist Orthopaedic Surgeon Last reviewed
What you're feeling
Radial tunnel syndrome causes a deep ache on the outside of your elbow and forearm. The sore spot is usually about 3 to 5 centimetres below the bony bump on the outside of your elbow. Pressing on that spot hurts more than anywhere else.
The pain tends to flare with activity. Turning your palm up, twisting your forearm, or gripping and lifting can make it worse. The ache can spread towards the back of your forearm and wrist. Rest usually settles it, and the pain often comes back the next time you do the same task.
Daily jobs that need repeated twisting or gripping can become hard. Turning a screwdriver, opening a jar, using a hammer, or wringing out a wet cloth may all bring the ache on. Some people notice it most after work or sport rather than during the activity itself.
Unlike some other nerve problems around the elbow and wrist, this one usually does not cause numbness or tingling. The nerve still works normally. That is one reason the condition can be confusing, because the pain feels real but tests of nerve function often come back clear.
The name is a little misleading. The radial tunnel is not a single narrow passage. It is a stretch along the path of the radial nerve where several different structures can press on it. These include the edge of a muscle, a fibrous band, and small blood vessels that cross the nerve. Pressure at any of these points can cause the same deep ache.
Because several other conditions can cause similar pain on the outside of the elbow, your surgeon will look closely at exactly where it hurts and what sets it off. Getting the right diagnosis matters, because the treatment for each cause is different.
What's actually happening
The radial nerve runs down your arm and past your elbow on its way to your hand. Just below the elbow, it splits into two branches. One branch carries feeling to the back of your hand. The other branch, called the posterior interosseous nerve, carries signals that move your wrist and fingers, and it also carries pain fibres from your wrist joint.
Along this stretch of nerve, several different structures sit close by. The edge of a muscle, a tough fibrous band, and small blood vessels crossing the nerve can each press on it. Any one of these pressure points can cause the same deep ache you feel on the outside of your elbow.
Nerves are built to glide. As you bend and straighten your elbow or turn your forearm, the nerve slides a little to keep up with the movement. If something limits that sliding, the nerve gets tugged each time you twist or grip. Repeated tugging irritates it, and that irritation is felt as pain.
This condition is unusual among nerve problems. The nerve still works normally, so your hand strength and feeling are fine and nerve tests come back clear. What is affected is a set of pain-carrying fibres within the nerve itself. That is why the main problem is a deep ache rather than numbness or weakness.
Because the pressure points sit near the outside of the elbow, this condition is often mistaken for tennis elbow, which is wear and tear where forearm tendons attach to the bone. The two can even occur together. The difference matters, because the treatments are not the same. Your surgeon will check the exact sore spot and how your symptoms behave to tell them apart.
Most cases settle without surgery. Rest, activity changes and other non-surgical treatments come first. Surgery to relieve the pressure is kept for cases that do not improve despite those measures.
What we can do about it
Dr Kieran Hirpara, an upper-limb surgeon at Mater Private Hospital Rockhampton, starts with the least invasive options that suit your condition. Patients are generally referred to our clinic by their GP; if a physiotherapist has suggested you see us, you will still need a referral from your GP in order to be eligible for the Medicare rebate. At your first visit we take a history, examine your elbow, and arrange imaging if it will help. Plain x-rays are the usual first check. An MRI scan can confirm pressure on the nerve and rule out other causes of the pain.
For this condition, non-surgical care comes first. We usually begin with rest and a change to the activities that set the pain off. That might mean easing back on repeated twisting, gripping or lifting for a while. Physiotherapy aims to settle the irritation and let the nerve glide without being tugged. Splinting the wrist can also form part of this early care. We give these measures a fair trial before thinking about anything further.
We do not use injections for this condition, so we will not offer you a cortisone shot or similar. Pain relief and anti-inflammatory tablets, the kind you might buy at a pharmacy, can help take the edge off while the other measures do their work. They treat the symptoms rather than the cause.
Surgery is considered when the ache has not improved despite a proper trial of non-surgical care. The operation is called a radial tunnel release. It works by finding each spot along the nerve where a structure presses on it and freeing that pressure, while leaving the blood supply to the nerve untouched. Because there can be several pressure points, the whole stretch of the nerve is checked and released. We will talk through whether surgery makes sense for you and decide together.
What to expect
For most people, this condition follows a slow and stubborn course rather than a sudden one. The ache tends to settle with rest and flare again with the same tasks, so it can come and go for months if the activities that set it off continue. Non-surgical care comes first, and many cases improve with it. If the ache has not settled despite a fair trial of those measures, surgery to relieve the pressure is an option for stubborn cases.
Recovery from nerve irritation takes time. Nerves heal slowly, so improvement usually happens over weeks to months rather than days. You may notice the deep ache easing first, then find that twisting, gripping and lifting feel more comfortable as the irritation settles. Some people improve steadily; others find the pain lingers or returns when they go back to the same repetitive work. Setting realistic goals matters, because the aim is a comfortable, working arm rather than a promise of a pain-free one.
If surgery is done and the pressure points are released, many people get lasting relief from the ache. But surgery does not work for everyone, and some people continue to have pain or find it comes back. There is also no single spot that explains every case, which is part of why results vary. If the condition is left alone and the same activities continue, the ache usually persists or keeps returning rather than going away on its own.
A different problem, where the nerve branch that moves the wrist and fingers is pressed hard enough to affect its signals, behaves differently. In that setting, weakness of the wrist and fingers can appear, and when it follows an operation nearby, it typically settles within 3 months, and at the latest, 5 months. Your surgeon will tell you if that is what is happening in your case, because the outlook and the plan are not the same as for the pain-only condition.
When to see someone
See your GP if you have a deep ache on the outside of your elbow that keeps coming back, especially if one sore spot about 3 to 5 centimetres below the bony bump is tender to press and twisting your forearm makes it worse. Ask for a specialist review if the ache has not settled after a fair trial of rest and activity changes, or if it keeps stopping you working. This condition does not normally cause numbness, tingling or weakness, so tell your GP if those appear, because they point to a different nerve problem that needs checking sooner.
In more depth
Advanced reading: the deeper science (optional)
This section goes further than you need for your own treatment decisions. Radial tunnel syndrome is worth the extra reading for an uncomfortable reason: it is the condition on this site with the weakest evidence base, there is no test that confirms it, and being told plainly how uncertain it is should form part of any decision to operate.
There is no confirmatory test
Most nerve compressions can be demonstrated. Carpal tunnel syndrome produces slowed conduction across the wrist; cubital tunnel produces it across the elbow. Radial tunnel syndrome characteristically does not, the nerve branch involved supplies muscle rather than skin, so there is no numbness to map, and nerve conduction studies are frequently normal.
The diagnosis therefore rests on the pattern of pain, tenderness a few centimetres distal to the lateral epicondyle rather than over it, and the response to a local anaesthetic block. Each of those is suggestive; none is definitive. Contemporary reviews describe ongoing controversy regarding both diagnosis and outcomes [1].
The practical consequence is a high rate of confusion with tennis elbow, which sits immediately adjacent and can coexist. Persistent "tennis elbow" that has not responded to good treatment is one of the commonest circumstances in which radial tunnel syndrome is eventually considered.
The evidence for treating it is genuinely thin
A systematic review of interventions found a tendency that surgical decompression might be effective, and, the more remarkable finding, that the effectiveness of conservative treatments is unknown, because for most of them no studies were available at all [2].
That is not the usual "evidence is limited" formulation. For most non-operative treatments offered for this condition, the studies have not been done. Current reviews still place non-surgical management first, with decompression a viable option for refractory cases [1], and that ordering reflects reasonable caution rather than demonstrated superiority.
What that means for a decision
Two things follow, and they pull in opposite directions.
Against early surgery: the diagnosis cannot be confirmed, so an operation may be decompressing a nerve that is not the source. Where a decompression fails, it is often impossible to determine whether the operation was inadequate or the diagnosis was wrong.
For considering it in the right patient: there is no evidence base supporting the alternatives either, so waiting is not the evidence-backed option people assume. It is simply the lower-risk one.
The reasonable position is that a confident diagnosis matters more here than anywhere else on this site, a consistent history, examination localising to the radial tunnel rather than the epicondyle, imaging excluding a space-occupying lesion, and ideally a convincing response to a diagnostic block before an irreversible step is taken.
A related but different problem
Posterior interosseous nerve palsy, weakness of finger and thumb extension rather than pain, is a distinct entity with clearer management. Where imaging shows no compressive lesion, conservative management should be tried first, with surgery reserved for demonstrated compressive lesions and for failure of conservative treatment [3]. Where there is no space-occupying lesion, a trial of non-operative management is advisable, with exploration recommended if there is no sign of muscle recovery after 6 weeks of observation, or if weakness is progressive [4].
Those are concrete thresholds, and their existence is the clearest illustration of the contrast: when the nerve visibly stops working, the literature can say what to do and when. When it only hurts, it cannot.
References for the advanced reading
- Wolf JM, Patel R, Ghosh K. Radial tunnel syndrome: review and best evidence. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2023;31(15):813-9.
- Huisstede B, Miedema HS, van Opstal T, de Ronde MT, Verhaar JA, Koes BW. Interventions for treating the radial tunnel syndrome: a systematic review of observational studies. J Hand Surg Am. 2008;33(1):72.e1-72.e10.
- McGraw I. Isolated spontaneous posterior interosseous nerve palsy: a review of aetiology and management. J Hand Surg Eur Vol. 2018;44(3):310-6.
- Sigamoney KV, Rashid A, Ng CY. Management of atraumatic posterior interosseous nerve palsy. J Hand Surg Am. 2017;42(10):826-30.
Evidence & references
This is the clinical evidence summary written for health professionals. It is technical, and it lists the research this page was built from. You do not need to read it to understand your treatment or to make a decision about it.
Overview
- Radial tunnel syndrome is an illness construct based on a speculative pathophysiology with no verifiable pathophysiology or accepted reference standard for diagnosis [3].
- The primary issue surrounding radial tunnel syndrome has traditionally been properly identifying it clinically [2].
- The Rule-of-Nine test effectively specifies the site of tenderness for the diagnosis of radial tunnel syndrome [4].
- A prospective evaluation of corticosteroid injection demonstrated improvement in standardized outcomes measures of pain and function at one year in 75% of patients presenting with symptoms of radial tunnel syndrome [5].
- Nonsurgical management is first-line for radial tunnel syndrome [1].
- Surgical decompression remains a viable option for refractory cases of radial tunnel syndrome despite ongoing controversy regarding diagnosis and outcomes [1].
- Pain in patients with radial tunnel syndrome may be treated successfully by surgical decompression of the superficial branch of the radial nerve [12].
- In high radial nerve entrapment neuropathy cases resistant to conservative treatment, surgery is advocated with emphasis on dissecting the entire length of the fibrous tunnel [6].
- A study on high-resolution dynamic ultrasonography for posterior interosseous nerve compression acknowledges that it does not establish diagnostic accuracy or a reference standard for radial tunnel syndrome [15].
Anatomy & Pathophysiology
Radial Tunnel Anatomy
- The radial tunnel is a potential space located anterior to the proximal radius through which the posterior interosseous nerve (PIN) passes [8].
- The radial tunnel extends for approximately 5 cm starting from the level of the humeroradial joint and extending past the proximal edge of the supinator [8].
- The radial tunnel is bound on the lateral side by the brachioradialis, extensor carpi radialis longus, and extensor carpi radialis brevis muscles [8].
- The radial tunnel is bound on the medial side by the supinator muscle [8].
- The posterior interosseous nerve crosses the radial head midline [55].
- Supination of the forearm increases the linear distance between the posterior interosseous nerve and the radial head [55].
- Predictive accuracy for posterior interosseous nerve localization in the proximal forearm was highest when the arm was in a supinated position [66].
Pathophysiology & Etiology
- Radial tunnel syndrome is a pain syndrome presumed to be caused by compression of the posterior interosseous nerve at the proximal forearm [8].
- There is dispute over the etiology of radial tunnel syndrome, with skeptics noting that its signs and symptoms contrast from other well-described entrapment neuropathies [7].
- Skeptics note that radial tunnel syndrome presents with prominent focal tenderness, normal neurologic function, and no confirmatory electrodiagnostic evidence of nerve dysfunction [7].
- Focal tenderness at the radial tunnel in radial tunnel syndrome differs from a positive Phalen's test in carpal tunnel syndrome because symptoms do not occur in the distribution of the purportedly affected nerve [7].
- The posterior interosseous nerve carries unmyelinated (group IV) afferent fibers from the wrist capsule [7].
- The posterior interosseous nerve carries small myelinated (group IIA) afferent fibers from the muscles along its distribution [7].
- Unmyelinated group IV fibers from muscles are associated with nociception and pain [7].
- There are no specific electrodiagnostic findings for radial tunnel syndrome [8].
Classification
- There is dispute over the etiology of radial tunnel syndrome, with skeptics noting that its signs and symptoms contrast from other well-described entrapment neuropathies such as carpal tunnel syndrome and cubital tunnel syndrome [7].
- Focal tenderness at the radial tunnel in radial tunnel syndrome differs from a positive Phalen's test in carpal tunnel syndrome in that the symptoms do not occur in the distribution of the purportedly affected nerve [7].
- Radial tunnel syndrome and posterior interosseous nerve compression are distinct entities with different clinical presentations but share identical potential sites of nerve interference [14].
- The author proposes unifying radial tunnel syndrome and posterior interosseous nerve compression as mild and severe forms of one disease to simplify nomenclature [14].
- The authors advocate for consistent use of the terminology distinguishing the deep branch of the radial nerve and the posterior interosseous nerve [24].
- The authors recommend viewing radial tunnel syndrome and posterior interosseous nerve syndrome as a single condition presenting along a spectrum of nerve entrapment [24].
- The study provides credence to the concept that radial tunnel syndrome is a distinct clinical entity related to compression of the posterior interosseous nerve [9].
- The prevalence of radial tunnel syndrome in a representative United States insurance database was 0.091% [70].
- The annual incidence of radial tunnel syndrome in a representative United States insurance database was 0.0091% [70].
- Approximately 5.7% of the patients with radial tunnel syndrome also had a diagnosis of lateral epicondylitis on the same side within 6 months of radial tunnel syndrome diagnosis [70].
Clinical Presentation
Diagnostic Criteria and Physical Findings
- Diagnosis of radial tunnel syndrome depends on clinical presentation and physical findings [8].
- Prominent focal tenderness in the area of the radial tunnel is one of the principal diagnostic criteria for radial tunnel syndrome [7].
- Clinical diagnosis criteria for radial tunnel syndrome include activity-related pain, maximal tenderness 3–5 cm distal to the lateral epicondyle, pain exacerbation with forearm supination, radiation to the dorsoradial aspect of the forearm, and a positive Lister test [42].
- A positive Lister test is defined as pain with resisted middle finger extension [42].
- Patients required to have at least 4 of the 5 diagnostic signs and symptoms for a clinical diagnosis of radial tunnel syndrome, with maximal tenderness 3–5 cm distal to the lateral epicondyle being mandatory [42].
- Physical examination maneuvers to elicit radial tunnel syndrome include wrist flexion and forearm pronation, the Rule of Nines test, and weakness and pain with resisted long finger extension [46].
- The history for radial tunnel syndrome is characterized by extensor musculature "forearm aching" [46].
Neurologic and Electrodiagnostic Features
- Skeptics note that radial tunnel syndrome presents with normal neurologic function, contrasting with other well-described entrapment neuropathies [7].
- Skeptics note that there is no confirmatory electrodiagnostic evidence of nerve dysfunction in radial tunnel syndrome [7].
- Focal tenderness at the radial tunnel differs from a positive Phalen's test in carpal tunnel syndrome because symptoms do not occur in the distribution of the purportedly affected nerve [7].
- The posterior interosseous nerve carries unmyelinated (group IV) afferent fibers from the wrist capsule and small myelinated (group IIA) afferent fibers from the muscles along its distribution [7].
Differential Diagnosis and Controversy
- There is dispute over the etiology of radial tunnel syndrome, with skeptics noting its signs and symptoms contrast from carpal tunnel syndrome and cubital tunnel syndrome [7].
- Radial tunnel syndrome and posterior interosseous nerve syndrome may be viewed as a single condition presenting along a spectrum of nerve entrapment [24].
- Type A ganglion cysts of the radiocapitellar joint may involve compression of the superficial radial nerve, leading to painful and dysesthetic symptoms at the lateral aspect of the elbow [16].
- Patients with superficial radial nerve compression due to type A ganglion cysts are often initially diagnosed and managed as lateral epicondylitis [16].
Investigations
Clinical Diagnosis and Controversy
- Radial tunnel syndrome is a pain syndrome caused by compression of the posterior interosseous nerve at the proximal forearm [8].
- The diagnosis of radial tunnel syndrome depends on clinical presentation and physical findings [8].
- The primary issue surrounding radial tunnel syndrome is properly identifying it clinically [2].
- Radial tunnel syndrome is described as an illness construct based on a speculative pathophysiology with no verifiable pathophysiology or accepted reference standard for diagnosis [3].
- The lack of specific electrodiagnostic and pathophysiologic findings makes radial tunnel syndrome somewhat controversial [8].
Electrodiagnostics
- Understanding the anatomic course and distribution of the radial nerve is important to make an accurate diagnosis [11].
Imaging
- Magnetic resonance imaging provides credence to the concept that radial tunnel syndrome is a distinct clinical entity related to compression of the posterior interosseous nerve [9].
- Dynamic ultrasonographic assessment of changes in the anteroposterior diameter and cross-sectional area is an effective diagnostic tool for identifying radial tunnel syndrome [64].
- A study on high-resolution dynamic ultrasonography for posterior interosseous nerve compression does not establish diagnostic accuracy or a reference standard for radial tunnel syndrome [15].
- Type A ganglion cysts of the radiocapitellar joint may involve compression of the superficial radial nerve, which can present with symptoms initially diagnosed as lateral epicondylitis [16].
- Magnetic resonance imaging can reveal the presence of a mass compatible with a ganglion cyst coming from the radiocapitellar joint that pushes up the superficial sensory branch of the radial nerve [16].
Treatment
Non-Operative
- Nonsurgical management is the first-line treatment for radial tunnel syndrome [1].
- The two most common nerve entrapment disorders about the elbow, including radial tunnel, should be initially managed conservatively before considering surgical intervention [41].
- A prospective evaluation of a single corticosteroid injection demonstrated improvement in standardized outcomes measures of pain and function at one year in 75% of patients presenting with symptoms of radial tunnel syndrome [5].
- A prospective evaluation of a single corticosteroid injection in radial tunnel syndrome was conducted by authors who declared no potential conflicts of interest and received no financial support for the research [22].
Operative
- Surgical decompression remains a viable option for refractory cases of radial tunnel syndrome [1].
- There is a tendency that surgical decompression of the radial tunnel might be effective in patients with radial tunnel syndrome [48].
- In high radial nerve entrapment neuropathy cases resistant to conservative treatment, surgery is advocated with an emphasis on dissecting the entire length of the fibrous tunnel [6].
- There has been no randomized controlled trial that compares surgical with nonsurgical treatment or with a placebo for radial tunnel syndrome [7].
Complications
- Nerve injury is an uncommon though troublesome complication of fractures or dislocations of the elbow [18].
- Workers' compensation patients and those with associated lateral epicondylitis may have less successful outcomes following surgical treatment for radial tunnel syndrome [8].
Recovery
- Prospective evaluation of corticosteroid injection demonstrated improvement in standardized outcomes measures of pain and function at one year in 75% of patients presenting with symptoms of radial tunnel syndrome [5].
- Isolated posterior interosseous nerve neurectomy has shown excellent clinical outcomes, with few patients experiencing recurrent pain at long-term follow-up [30].
Key Evidence
- [L4] The article reviews the anatomy, diagnosis, and treatment of radial tunnel syndrome, noting that while nonsurgical management is first-line, surgical decompression remains a viable option for refractory cases despite ongoing controversy regarding diagnosis and outcomes. [1] (10.5435/jaaos-d-23-00314)
- [L5] The issue surrounding radial tunnel syndrome traditionally has been properly identifying it clinically. [2] (10.1097/01.bth.0000231580.32406.71)
- [L5] Radial tunnel syndrome is an illness construct based on a speculative pathophysiology with no verifiable pathophysiology or accepted reference standard for diagnosis. [3] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2010.03.020)
- [L4] The Rule-of-Nine test effectively specifies the site of tenderness for the diagnosis of radial tunnel syndrome. [4] (10.1177/230949900401200115)
- [L4] Prospective evaluation of corticosteroid injection demonstrated improvement in standardized outcomes measures of pain and function at one year in 75% of patients presenting with symptoms of radial tunnel syndrome. [5] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2017.06.095)
- [Case_report] The authors advocate for surgery in high radial nerve entrapment neuropathy cases resistant to conservative treatment, emphasizing the importance of dissecting the entire length of the fibrous tunnel. [6] (10.1016/j.jse.2025.02.060)
- [L5] [7] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2009.10.016)
- [L5] [8] (10.1016/j.ocl.2012.07.022)
- [L4] The study provides credence to the somewhat disputed concept that radial tunnel syndrome is a distinct clinical entity related to compression of the posterior interosseous nerve. [9] (10.1148/radiol.2401050028)
- [L5] It is important to understand the anatomic course and distribution of the radial nerve in order to make an accurate diagnosis. [11] (10.1007/s11420-011-9238-8)
- [L4] This study indicates that pain in patients with radial tunnel syndrome may be treated successfully by surgical decompression of the superficial branch of the radial nerve. [12] (10.1177/1753193408099832)
- [L5] Radial tunnel syndrome (RTS) and posterior interosseous nerve (PIN) compression are distinct entities with different clinical presentations but share identical potential sites of nerve interference; the author proposes unifying them as mild (RTS) and severe (PIN compression) forms of one disease to simplify nomenclature. [14] (10.1177/1753193420953990)
- [Paper] The authors acknowledge that their study does not establish diagnostic accuracy or a reference standard for radial tunnel syndrome. [15] (10.1177/17531934261463150)
- [L4] [16] (10.1016/j.otsr.2016.05.014)
- [L4] Nerve injury is an uncommon though troublesome complication of fractures or dislocations of the elbow. [18] (10.1016/s0020-1383(79)80015-7)
- [L4] [22] (10.1177/1558944718787282)
- [L5] The authors advocate for consistent use of the terminology distinguishing the deep branch of the radial nerve (DBRN) and the posterior interosseous nerve (PIN), and recommend viewing radial tunnel syndrome and posterior interosseous nerve syndrome as a single condition presenting along a spectrum of nerve entrapment. [24] (10.1177/17531934241254706)
- [L4] Isolated PINN have shown excellent clinical outcomes, with few patients experiencing recurrent pain at long-term follow-up. [30] (10.1177/1558944717692093)
- [L2] [42] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2024.09.023)
- [L4] There is a tendency that surgical decompression of the radial tunnel might be effective in patients with RTS. [48] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2007.10.001)
- [L5] Supination increases the linear distance between the PIN and radial head and should be considered to increase the safe working volume whenever intra-articular procedures are performed on the anterolateral aspect of the elbow. [55] (10.1016/j.jse.2018.08.019)
- [L4] Dynamic ultrasonographic assessment of changes in the AP diameter and CSA is an effective diagnostic tool for identifying radial tunnel syndrome. [64] (10.1177/17531934261443138)
- [L5] Predictive accuracy was highest when the arm was in a supinated position. [66] (10.1016/j.arthro.2013.03.056)
- [L3] [70] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2023.03.007)
References
[1] Radial Tunnel Syndrome: Review and Best Evidence. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 2023. DOI: 10.5435/jaaos-d-23-00314
[2] A Unified Approach to Radial Tunnel Syndrome and Lateral Tendinosis. Techniques in Hand & Upper Extremity Surgery. 2006. DOI: 10.1097/01.bth.0000231580.32406.71
[3] Radial Tunnel Syndrome. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2010. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2010.03.020
[4] A New Clinical Test for Radial Tunnel Syndrome—The Rule-of-Nine Test: A Cadaveric Study. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery. 2001. DOI: 10.1177/230949900401200115
[5] Prospective Evaluation of Single Corticosteroid Injection in Radial Tunnel Syndrome. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2017.06.095
[6] High radial nerve entrapment neuropathy: an anatomical cadaver study and case report. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2025.02.060
[7] Unusual Compression Neuropathies of the Forearm, Part I: Radial Nerve. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2009. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2009.10.016
[8] Radial Tunnel Syndrome. Orthopedic Clinics of North America. 2012. DOI: 10.1016/j.ocl.2012.07.022
[9] MR Imaging Features of Radial Tunnel Syndrome: Initial Experience. Radiology. 2006. DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2401050028
[11] Posterior Interosseous Neuropathy: Electrodiagnostic Evaluation. HSS Journal®: The Musculoskeletal Journal of Hospital for Special Surgery. 2012. DOI: 10.1007/s11420-011-9238-8
[12] Radial Tunnel Syndrome: Emphasis on the Superficial Branch of the Radial Nerve. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 2009. DOI: 10.1177/1753193408099832
[14] Radial tunnel syndrome: definition, distinction and treatments. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 2020. DOI: 10.1177/1753193420953990
[15] Re: Role of high-resolution dynamic ultrasonography in the evaluation of posterior interosseous nerve compression at radial tunnel: a prospective case-control study. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 1934. DOI: 10.1177/17531934261463150
[16] Type A ganglion cysts of the radiocapitellar joint may involve compression of the superficial radial nerve. Orthopaedics & Traumatology: Surgery & Research. 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.otsr.2016.05.014
[18] Acute nerve injury as a complication of closed fractures or dislocations of the elbow. Injury. 1979. DOI: 10.1016/s0020-1383(79)80015-7
[22] Prospective Evaluation of a Single Corticosteroid Injection in Radial Tunnel Syndrome. HAND. 2018. DOI: 10.1177/1558944718787282
[24] Nomenclature of the radial nerve: distinguishing between the deep branch of the radial nerve and the posterior interosseous nerve. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 2024. DOI: 10.1177/17531934241254706
[30] Outcomes Following Isolated Posterior Interosseous Nerve Neurectomy: A Systematic Review. HAND. 2017. DOI: 10.1177/1558944717692093
[41] Orthopaedic Knowledge Update 13 Ebook Without Multimedia. Elbow Degenerative Conditions and Nerve Disorders > Summary.
[42] Investigating the Effect of Triamcinolone Local Injection on Clinical Outcomes of Patients With Radial Tunnel Syndrome: A Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2024.09.023
[46] Orthopaedic Knowledge Update 13 Ebook Without Multimedia. Anatomy, Biomechanics, Physical Examination, and Imaging of the Elbow > Biomechanics > Clinical Examination.
[48] Interventions for Treating the Radial Tunnel Syndrome: A Systematic Review of Observational Studies. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2008. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2007.10.001
[55] The posterior interosseous nerve crosses the radial head midline and increases its distance from bony structures with supination of the forearm. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2018.08.019
[64] Role of high-resolution dynamic ultrasonography in the evaluation of posterior interosseous nerve compression at radial tunnel: a prospective case-control study. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 2026. DOI: 10.1177/17531934261443138
[66] Posterior Interosseous Nerve Localization in the Proximal Forearm: A Cadaveric Study Establishing a Non‐invasive, Patient‐normalized Parameter (SS‐49). Arthroscopy. 2013. DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2013.03.056
[70] The Epidemiology of Radial Tunnel Syndrome and Its Overlap With Lateral Epicondylitis. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2023.03.007
