Radial Tunnel Syndrome Info In-depth Evidence
Reviewed by Dr Kieran Hirpara, Specialist Orthopaedic Surgeon Last reviewed
What you're feeling
You may notice a dull, aching pain on the outer side of your upper arm and forearm. This discomfort sits where the radial nerve travels down the back of your arm. The radial nerve is not inside a single narrow tube. It passes through a stretch of tissue where several separate structures can press against it. You might feel pressure from the edge of a muscle, a fibrous band, or small crossing blood vessels along this path.
The pain often builds up as you use your arm. Activities that involve gripping or twisting your forearm can make it worse. You might find it difficult to turn a doorknob, open a jar, or lift a heavy shopping bag. The ache can also flare up after you have been typing or using tools for a while. Some people feel a deeper soreness when they first wake up in the morning.
Unlike other nerve issues, you usually do not lose the ability to move your hand or wrist. Your grip strength might feel slightly weaker, but you can still hold objects. The main issue is the persistent pain and tenderness on the outer elbow and forearm. If you press on the back of your upper arm, you may feel a specific spot that hurts more than the rest. This tenderness helps point to the radial nerve as the source of your discomfort.
Because the nerve is being squeezed by nearby tissues, the pain can feel like it is spreading from your elbow down toward your thumb side. It rarely causes numbness in your fingers. Instead, it feels like a deep bruise or a constant, low-level throb. If you rest your arm and avoid repetitive twisting, the pain may ease slightly. However, it often returns when you resume your usual daily tasks.
What's actually happening
Despite the name, there is no actual tunnel in your arm. The term 'radial tunnel' simply describes a stretch of path along the radial nerve. This nerve runs from your shoulder down to your hand. It carries signals that help you lift your wrist and fingers.
Along this path, several separate structures can press on the nerve. You might feel pressure from the edge of a muscle, a fibrous band, or a small group of crossing blood vessels. These are not one single blockage. They are multiple potential pressure points along the nerve’s course.
When these structures squeeze the nerve, it becomes irritated. This irritation causes the pain and weakness you feel in your forearm and wrist. It is similar to a garden hose being kinked or weighed down by a heavy object. The water cannot flow freely, so pressure builds up behind the blockage.
Your surgeon will look for these specific points of compression. They will check where the nerve passes under muscles or through tight bands of tissue. Sometimes, the nerve is simply trapped in a narrow space between two structures.
In some cases, the problem starts higher up. For example, after shoulder surgery, the position of your arm can stretch the nerve too tightly. Or, an injury to the upper arm bone can cause swelling that presses on the nerve. Your surgeon needs to understand exactly where the pressure is coming from to relieve it safely.
If conservative treatments do not help, we may recommend releasing these tight structures. This involves gently moving the tissues that are pressing on the nerve. The goal is to give the nerve more room to move and heal. We always aim to address every possible point of compression along the path, not just one spot.
What we can do about it
Dr Kieran Hirpara, an upper-limb surgeon at Mater Private Hospital Rockhampton, starts with the least invasive options that suit your condition. We begin with self-management and physiotherapy. You can try changing activities to avoid movements that worsen your pain. Physiotherapy aims to strengthen your forearm muscles and improve your elbow’s range of motion. We usually recommend giving this approach a fair trial before considering other steps.
Medical management focuses on reducing pain and inflammation. Your surgeon may suggest pain medication or anti-inflammatories to help you manage symptoms. Injections are sometimes used to calm irritated tissues. Cortisone injections can reduce swelling and pain for a limited time. Hyaluronic acid injections aim to lubricate the joint, while platelet-rich plasma (PRP) injections use your own blood components to support healing. The duration of relief varies for each person and each treatment type.
Surgery is considered when conservative care has not given enough improvement. Radial tunnel syndrome involves several possible pressure points along the nerve’s path, rather than a single narrow tunnel. We may recommend surgical decompression to relieve pressure on the radial nerve. This procedure is typically reserved for cases that remain painful despite non-operative care. Patients are generally referred to our clinic by their GP; if a physiotherapist has suggested you see us, you will still need a referral from your GP in order to be eligible for the Medicare rebate. A clinic assessment (history, examination, and imaging where needed) establishes the diagnosis. For degenerative or long-standing problems we usually try non-operative care — activity change, physiotherapy or hand therapy, splinting, and injections — and consider surgery when that has not given enough improvement. For structural or acute problems, surgery may be recommended straight away, without a preceding non-operative trial. Where the evidence gives a headline outcome figure for this operation or treatment (for example an implant-survival, success, or satisfaction rate), state it plainly to support the recommendation and let the number speak for itself. Present it as a shared decision.
What to expect
Your outlook depends largely on the cause of your symptoms. If your radial tunnel syndrome stems from a closed humeral shaft fracture, spontaneous recovery occurs in the majority of patients. Initial nonsurgical management is typically recommended because your nerve may heal on its own. For general radial nerve injuries, spontaneous recovery occurs in 70%–88% of cases. This means most people see improvement without needing an operation.
If your symptoms persist despite conservative care, surgery may be discussed. Your surgeon will explain that no single surgical approach is adequate for complete visualization and release of all compression points. However, early action can make a difference. Patients undergoing surgical exploration within 3 weeks of a humeral fracture injury had a significantly higher likelihood of regaining radial nerve function than those managed nonsurgically or with late surgical exploration.
Recovery is a gradual process. Injuries to the posterior interosseous nerve typically resolve within 3 months, and at the latest, 5 months after surgery. If your nerve requires repair or reconstruction, it recovered better if this was done within 5 months of injury. For more complex cases involving large gaps in the nerve, good to excellent motor recovery can be expected in 83% of patients when specific grafting techniques are used.
If nerve function does not return, tendon transfers may be considered. These are indicated in longstanding, irreparable, isolated radial nerve lesions. They can help restore efficient grip while awaiting reinnervation of wrist extensors. This avoids the need for prolonged external splintage in high radial nerve paralysis.
It is important to manage expectations. While many people recover well, some may experience persistent symptoms. Complications associated with reconstructive elbow surgery persist, often leading to profound and sometimes nonsalvageable disability, with aseptic loosening, infection, and periprosthetic fracture being the most devastating problems. Your surgeon will discuss which path offers the best chance of restoring your function based on your specific injury and timeline.
When to see someone
See your GP if you have persistent pain in the outer elbow that does not improve with rest. Ask for a specialist review if you notice weakness in your wrist or fingers, or if symptoms interfere with sleep or work. Sudden worsening of pain or numbness also warrants prompt attention. While many radial nerve injuries recover on their own within 3 months, early assessment is key. If you experience trauma to the arm, seek care immediately. Early surgical exploration within 3 weeks of injury significantly improves the likelihood of regaining full nerve function. Do not wait if your symptoms persist or worsen.
Advanced reading: the deeper science (optional)
This section goes further than you need for your own treatment decisions. Radial tunnel syndrome is worth the extra reading for an uncomfortable reason: it is the condition on this site with the weakest evidence base, there is no test that confirms it, and being told plainly how uncertain it is should form part of any decision to operate.
There is no confirmatory test
Most nerve compressions can be demonstrated. Carpal tunnel syndrome produces slowed conduction across the wrist; cubital tunnel produces it across the elbow. Radial tunnel syndrome characteristically does not — the nerve branch involved supplies muscle rather than skin, so there is no numbness to map, and nerve conduction studies are frequently normal.
The diagnosis therefore rests on the pattern of pain, tenderness a few centimetres distal to the lateral epicondyle rather than over it, and the response to a local anaesthetic block. Each of those is suggestive; none is definitive. Contemporary reviews describe ongoing controversy regarding both diagnosis and outcomes [1].
The practical consequence is a high rate of confusion with tennis elbow, which sits immediately adjacent and can coexist. Persistent "tennis elbow" that has not responded to good treatment is one of the commonest circumstances in which radial tunnel syndrome is eventually considered.
The evidence for treating it is genuinely thin
A systematic review of interventions found a tendency that surgical decompression might be effective, and — the more remarkable finding — that the effectiveness of conservative treatments is unknown, because for most of them no studies were available at all [2].
That is not the usual "evidence is limited" formulation. For most non-operative treatments offered for this condition, the studies have not been done. Current reviews still place non-surgical management first, with decompression a viable option for refractory cases [1], and that ordering reflects reasonable caution rather than demonstrated superiority.
What that means for a decision
Two things follow, and they pull in opposite directions.
Against early surgery: the diagnosis cannot be confirmed, so an operation may be decompressing a nerve that is not the source. Where a decompression fails, it is often impossible to determine whether the operation was inadequate or the diagnosis was wrong.
For considering it in the right patient: there is no evidence base supporting the alternatives either, so waiting is not the evidence-backed option people assume. It is simply the lower-risk one.
The reasonable position is that a confident diagnosis matters more here than anywhere else on this site — a consistent history, examination localising to the radial tunnel rather than the epicondyle, imaging excluding a space-occupying lesion, and ideally a convincing response to a diagnostic block before an irreversible step is taken.
A related but different problem
Posterior interosseous nerve palsy — weakness of finger and thumb extension rather than pain — is a distinct entity with clearer management. Where imaging shows no compressive lesion, conservative management should be tried first, with surgery reserved for demonstrated compressive lesions and for failure of conservative treatment [3]. Where there is no space-occupying lesion, a trial of non-operative management is advisable, with exploration recommended if there is no sign of muscle recovery after 6 weeks of observation, or if weakness is progressive [4].
Those are concrete thresholds, and their existence is the clearest illustration of the contrast: when the nerve visibly stops working, the literature can say what to do and when. When it only hurts, it cannot.
References for the advanced reading
- Wolf JM, Patel R, Ghosh K. Radial tunnel syndrome: review and best evidence. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2023;31(15):813-9.
- Huisstede B, Miedema HS, van Opstal T, de Ronde MT, Verhaar JA, Koes BW. Interventions for treating the radial tunnel syndrome: a systematic review of observational studies. J Hand Surg Am. 2008;33(1):72.e1-72.e10.
- McGraw I. Isolated spontaneous posterior interosseous nerve palsy: a review of aetiology and management. J Hand Surg Eur Vol. 2018;44(3):310-6.
- Sigamoney KV, Rashid A, Ng CY. Management of atraumatic posterior interosseous nerve palsy. J Hand Surg Am. 2017;42(10):826-30.
Evidence & references
This is the clinical evidence summary written for health professionals. It is technical, and it lists the research this page was built from. You do not need to read it to understand your treatment or to make a decision about it.
Overview
- Radial tunnel syndrome is an illness construct based on a speculative pathophysiology with no verifiable pathophysiology or accepted reference standard for diagnosis [2].
- The traditional clinical issue surrounding radial tunnel syndrome has been properly identifying it [1].
- Radial tunnel syndrome is distinct from posterior interosseous nerve syndrome, though both are reviewed in the context of radial nerve pathology [8].
- The Rule-of-Nine test effectively specifies the site of tenderness for the diagnosis of radial tunnel syndrome [4].
- Nonsurgical management is considered first-line treatment for radial tunnel syndrome [3].
- Surgical decompression remains a viable option for refractory cases of radial tunnel syndrome despite ongoing controversy regarding diagnosis and outcomes [3].
- There is a tendency that surgical decompression of the radial tunnel might be effective in patients with radial tunnel syndrome [14].
- Pain in patients with radial tunnel syndrome may be treated successfully by surgical decompression of the superficial branch of the radial nerve [11].
- Corticosteroid injection demonstrated improvement in standardized outcomes measures of pain and function at one year in 75% of patients presenting with symptoms of radial tunnel syndrome [5].
- Surgical decompression of the median nerve or the anterior interosseous nerve (AIN) in the forearm is rarely indicated, and a prolonged nonsurgical approach is warranted in most cases [19].
Anatomy & Pathophysiology
- It is important to understand the anatomic course and distribution of the radial nerve to make an accurate diagnosis [9].
- The posterior interosseous nerve crosses the radial head midline and increases its distance from bony structures with supination of the forearm [26].
- Supination increases the linear distance between the posterior interosseous nerve and the radial head, which should be considered to increase safe working volume during intra-articular procedures on the anterolateral aspect of the elbow [26].
- The distance of the posterior interosseous nerve from the radial head appears to increase with forearm supination, potentially increasing safe working space [31].
- Predictive accuracy for posterior interosseous nerve localization in the proximal forearm is highest when the arm is in a supinated position [32].
- The posterior interosseous nerve moves farther from the radial head during elbow extension than flexion [35].
- The posterior interosseous nerve moves farther from the radial head during forearm pronation than supination [35].
- Distal migration of the posterior interosseous nerve is minimal (3.5 mm) across various elbow and forearm positions [35].
- Wrist proprioception appears to be a multifactorial phenomenon [34].
- There is controversy surrounding radial tunnel syndrome, dynamic compression theories, and the difficulty in differentiating it from tennis elbow [37].
Classification
- Radial tunnel syndrome is traditionally defined as a pain syndrome caused by compression of the posterior interosseous nerve at the proximal forearm [7].
- Radial tunnel syndrome and posterior interosseous nerve compression are distinct entities with different clinical presentations but share identical potential sites of nerve interference [12].
- Radial tunnel syndrome and posterior interosseous nerve compression are proposed to be mild (radial tunnel syndrome) and severe (posterior interosseous nerve compression) forms of one disease to simplify nomenclature [12].
- MR imaging features provide credence to the concept that radial tunnel syndrome is a distinct clinical entity related to compression of the posterior interosseous nerve [10].
- The issue surrounding radial tunnel syndrome traditionally has been properly identifying it clinically [1].
- It is important to understand the anatomic course and distribution of the radial nerve in order to make an accurate diagnosis [9].
- Nomenclature advocates for consistent use of terminology distinguishing the deep branch of the radial nerve and the posterior interosseous nerve [17].
- Radial tunnel syndrome and posterior interosseous nerve syndrome are recommended to be viewed as a single condition presenting along a spectrum of nerve entrapment [17].
Clinical Presentation
- Radial tunnel syndrome is traditionally characterized by difficulty in proper clinical identification [1].
- Radial tunnel syndrome is an illness construct based on speculative pathophysiology with no verifiable pathophysiology or accepted reference standard for diagnosis [2].
- There is ongoing controversy regarding the diagnosis and outcomes of radial tunnel syndrome [3].
- Radial tunnel syndrome is a pain syndrome caused by compression of the posterior interosseous nerve at the proximal forearm [7].
- Radial tunnel syndrome and posterior interosseous nerve compression are distinct entities with different clinical presentations [12].
- Radial tunnel syndrome and posterior interosseous nerve compression share identical potential sites of nerve interference [12].
- Radial tunnel syndrome is a distinct clinical entity related to compression of the posterior interosseous nerve [10].
- Understanding the anatomic course and distribution of the radial nerve is important for making an accurate diagnosis [9].
- Radial tunnel syndrome and posterior interosseous nerve syndrome may be viewed as a single condition presenting along a spectrum of nerve entrapment [17].
Investigations
- Radial tunnel syndrome is traditionally identified through clinical evaluation [1].
- MR imaging provides credence to the concept that radial tunnel syndrome is a distinct clinical entity related to compression of the posterior interosseous nerve [10].
- Dynamic ultrasonographic assessment of changes in the anteroposterior diameter and cross-sectional area is an effective diagnostic tool for identifying radial tunnel syndrome [18].
- Neuroimaging should be considered as a complementary diagnostic method in posterior interosseous neuropathy syndrome [33].
Treatment
Non-Operative Management
- Nonsurgical management is the first-line treatment for radial tunnel syndrome [3].
- A prolonged nonsurgical approach is warranted in most cases of nerve compression syndromes in the forearm, such as ulnar tunnel syndrome, radial tunnel syndrome, anterior interosseous nerve syndrome, and pronator syndrome [19].
- Nonoperative management with corticosteroid injection can be used as a therapeutic measure with potential long-term benefits in the treatment of radial tunnel syndrome [27].
- Prospective evaluation of a single corticosteroid injection demonstrated improvement in standardized outcomes measures of pain and function at one year in 75% of patients presenting with symptoms of radial tunnel syndrome [5].
Operative Management
- Surgery is advocated for high radial nerve entrapment neuropathy cases resistant to conservative treatment, emphasizing the importance of dissecting the entire length of the fibrous tunnel [6].
- No single surgical approach was adequate for complete visualization and release of all compression points of the radial tunnel [13].
Complications
- Isolated posterior interosseous nerve neurectomy (PINN) has shown excellent clinical outcomes, with few patients experiencing recurrent pain at long-term follow-up [21].
Recovery
- Surgical decompression is a viable option for refractory cases of radial tunnel syndrome [3].
- In a case of posterior interosseous-nerve syndrome secondary to rheumatoid synovitis with entrapment duration of more than two years, a tendon transfer was used as treatment [38].
- Surgical excision can lead to rapid recovery of nerve sensation in cases of radial nerve compression by ganglion cysts [39].
Key Evidence
- [L5] The issue surrounding radial tunnel syndrome traditionally has been properly identifying it clinically. [1] (10.1097/01.bth.0000231580.32406.71)
- [L5] Radial tunnel syndrome is an illness construct based on a speculative pathophysiology with no verifiable pathophysiology or accepted reference standard for diagnosis. [2] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2010.03.020)
- [L4] The article reviews the anatomy, diagnosis, and treatment of radial tunnel syndrome, noting that while nonsurgical management is first-line, surgical decompression remains a viable option for refractory cases despite ongoing controversy regarding diagnosis and outcomes. [3] (10.5435/jaaos-d-23-00314)
- [L4] The Rule-of-Nine test effectively specifies the site of tenderness for the diagnosis of radial tunnel syndrome. [4] (10.1177/230949900401200115)
- [L4] Prospective evaluation of corticosteroid injection demonstrated improvement in standardized outcomes measures of pain and function at one year in 75% of patients presenting with symptoms of radial tunnel syndrome. [5] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2017.06.095)
- [Case_report] The authors advocate for surgery in high radial nerve entrapment neuropathy cases resistant to conservative treatment, emphasizing the importance of dissecting the entire length of the fibrous tunnel. [6] (10.1016/j.jse.2025.02.060)
- [L5] Radial tunnel syndrome is a pain syndrome caused by compression of the posterior interosseous nerve at the proximal forearm. [7] (10.1016/j.ocl.2012.07.022)
- [Paper] This article is a review of the history, anatomy, and clinical presentation of radial tunnel syndrome (RTS) and posterior interosseous nerve syndrome (PINS). [8] (10.1016/s0749-0712(21)00357-7)
- [L5] It is important to understand the anatomic course and distribution of the radial nerve in order to make an accurate diagnosis. [9] (10.1007/s11420-011-9238-8)
- [L4] The study provides credence to the somewhat disputed concept that radial tunnel syndrome is a distinct clinical entity related to compression of the posterior interosseous nerve. [10] (10.1148/radiol.2401050028)
- [L4] This study indicates that pain in patients with radial tunnel syndrome may be treated successfully by surgical decompression of the superficial branch of the radial nerve. [11] (10.1177/1753193408099832)
- [L5] Radial tunnel syndrome (RTS) and posterior interosseous nerve (PIN) compression are distinct entities with different clinical presentations but share identical potential sites of nerve interference; the author proposes unifying them as mild (RTS) and severe (PIN compression) forms of one disease to simplify nomenclature. [12] (10.1177/1753193420953990)
- [L5] No single approach was adequate for complete visualization and release of all compression points of the radial tunnel. [13] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2015.03.009)
- [L4] There is a tendency that surgical decompression of the radial tunnel might be effective in patients with RTS. [14] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2007.10.001)
- [L5] The authors advocate for consistent use of the terminology distinguishing the deep branch of the radial nerve (DBRN) and the posterior interosseous nerve (PIN), and recommend viewing radial tunnel syndrome and posterior interosseous nerve syndrome as a single condition presenting along a spectrum of nerve entrapment. [17] (10.1177/17531934241254706)
- [L4] Dynamic ultrasonographic assessment of changes in the AP diameter and CSA is an effective diagnostic tool for identifying radial tunnel syndrome. [18] (10.1177/17531934261443138)
- [L5] Surgical decompression of the median nerve or the AIN in the forearm is rarely indicated; a prolonged nonsurgical approach is warranted in most cases. [19] (10.5435/jaaos-d-16-00010)
- [L4] Isolated PINN have shown excellent clinical outcomes, with few patients experiencing recurrent pain at long-term follow-up. [21] (10.1177/1558944717692093)
- [L5] Supination increases the linear distance between the PIN and radial head and should be considered to increase the safe working volume whenever intra-articular procedures are performed on the anterolateral aspect of the elbow. [26] (10.1016/j.jse.2018.08.019)
- [L4] Nonoperative management with corticosteroid injection can be used as a therapeutic measure with potential long-term benefits in the treatment of RTS. [27] (10.1177/1558944718787282)
- [L5] Furthermore, its distance from the radial head appears to increase with forearm supination, which could increase the safe working space. [31] (10.1055/s-0037-1605388)
- [L5] Predictive accuracy was highest when the arm was in a supinated position. [32] (10.1016/j.arthro.2013.03.056)
- [L4] Neuroimaging should be considered as a complementary diagnostic method in PINS. [33] (10.1212/wnl.0000000000003287)
- [L1] Wrist proprioception appears to be a multifactorial phenomenon. [34] (10.1016/j.jht.2015.03.003)
- [L3] The posterior interosseous nerve moved farther from the radial head during elbow extension than flexion and during forearm pronation than supination, but distal migration was minimal (3.5 mm). [35] (10.5397/cise.2024.00213)
- [L5] The paper is a letter to the editor discussing the controversy surrounding radial tunnel syndrome, dynamic compression theories, and the difficulty in differentiating it from tennis elbow, noting that a combined operative procedure for both conditions will be reported in the future. [37] (10.2106/00004623-199274020-00024)
- [L4] In the third patient, in whom the duration of entrapment was more than two years, a tendon transfer was used as treatment. [38] (10.2106/00004623-197355040-00009)
- [L4] Surgical excision can lead to rapid recovery of nerve sensation in cases of radial nerve compression by ganglion cysts. [39] (10.1007/s11552-007-9083-x)
References
[1] A Unified Approach to Radial Tunnel Syndrome and Lateral Tendinosis. Techniques in Hand & Upper Extremity Surgery. 2006. DOI: 10.1097/01.bth.0000231580.32406.71
[2] Radial Tunnel Syndrome. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2010. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2010.03.020
[3] Radial Tunnel Syndrome: Review and Best Evidence. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 2023. DOI: 10.5435/jaaos-d-23-00314
[4] A New Clinical Test for Radial Tunnel Syndrome—The Rule-of-Nine Test: A Cadaveric Study. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery. 2001. DOI: 10.1177/230949900401200115
[5] Prospective Evaluation of Single Corticosteroid Injection in Radial Tunnel Syndrome. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2017.06.095
[6] High radial nerve entrapment neuropathy: an anatomical cadaver study and case report. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2025.02.060
[7] Radial Tunnel Syndrome. Orthopedic Clinics of North America. 2012. DOI: 10.1016/j.ocl.2012.07.022
[8] RADIAL TUNNEL SYNDROME. Hand Clinics. 1996. DOI: 10.1016/s0749-0712(21)00357-7
[9] Posterior Interosseous Neuropathy: Electrodiagnostic Evaluation. HSS Journal®: The Musculoskeletal Journal of Hospital for Special Surgery. 2012. DOI: 10.1007/s11420-011-9238-8
[10] MR Imaging Features of Radial Tunnel Syndrome: Initial Experience. Radiology. 2006. DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2401050028
[11] Radial Tunnel Syndrome: Emphasis on the Superficial Branch of the Radial Nerve. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 2009. DOI: 10.1177/1753193408099832
[12] Radial tunnel syndrome: definition, distinction and treatments. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 2020. DOI: 10.1177/1753193420953990
[13] Anatomical Study of the Surgical Approaches to the Radial Tunnel. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2015.03.009
[14] Interventions for Treating the Radial Tunnel Syndrome: A Systematic Review of Observational Studies. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2008. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2007.10.001
[17] Nomenclature of the radial nerve: distinguishing between the deep branch of the radial nerve and the posterior interosseous nerve. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 2024. DOI: 10.1177/17531934241254706
[18] Role of high-resolution dynamic ultrasonography in the evaluation of posterior interosseous nerve compression at radial tunnel: a prospective case-control study. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume). 2026. DOI: 10.1177/17531934261443138
[19] Ulnar Tunnel Syndrome, Radial Tunnel Syndrome, Anterior Interosseous Nerve Syndrome, and Pronator Syndrome. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 2017. DOI: 10.5435/jaaos-d-16-00010
[21] Outcomes Following Isolated Posterior Interosseous Nerve Neurectomy: A Systematic Review. HAND. 2017. DOI: 10.1177/1558944717692093
[26] The posterior interosseous nerve crosses the radial head midline and increases its distance from bony structures with supination of the forearm. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2018.08.019
[27] Prospective Evaluation of a Single Corticosteroid Injection in Radial Tunnel Syndrome. HAND. 2018. DOI: 10.1177/1558944718787282
[31] Distance of the Posterior Interosseous Nerve from the Radial Head during Elbow Arthroscopy: An Anatomical Study. Joints. 2017. DOI: 10.1055/s-0037-1605388
[32] Posterior Interosseous Nerve Localization in the Proximal Forearm: A Cadaveric Study Establishing a Non‐invasive, Patient‐normalized Parameter (SS‐49). Arthroscopy. 2013. DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2013.03.056
[33] Posterior interosseous neuropathy. Neurology. 2016. DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000003287
[34] Multiplanar wrist joint proprioception: The effect of anesthetic blockade of the posterior interosseous nerve or skin envelope surrounding the joint. Journal of Hand Therapy. 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.jht.2015.03.003
[35] In vivo dynamic migration of the posterior interosseous nerve across various elbow and forearm positions. Clinics in Shoulder and Elbow. 2024. DOI: 10.5397/cise.2024.00213
[37] Radial tunnel syndrome. An investigation of compression neuropathy as a possible cause.. The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. 1992. DOI: 10.2106/00004623-199274020-00024
[38] Posterior Interosseous-Nerve Syndrome Secondary to Rheumatoid Synovitis. The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. 1973. DOI: 10.2106/00004623-197355040-00009
[39] Compression Neuropathy of the Radial Nerve Due to Ganglion Cysts. HAND. 2008. DOI: 10.1007/s11552-007-9083-x
